Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases worldwide, and Europe is not immune to their growing threat. Changes in climate, travel and urban life are creating more favorable conditions for disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes, ticks and sandflies to thrive and spread.
Across Europe, vector-borne illnesses such as Lyme disease, West Nile virus, chikungunya and dengue fever are becoming more common and widespread. This rising risk has led to a coordinated push toward vector-borne disease preparedness, a public health strategy that combines surveillance, prevention, education and emergency planning to stop outbreaks before they start.
In this article, we’ll explore the main causes driving the spread of VBDs in Europe and examine how governments and communities are working together to monitor vectors and prevent future outbreaks.
Vector-borne diseases don’t spread in a vacuum: They’re shaped by our environment and how we behave within it. In Europe, several key factors are fueling the increased presence and persistence of vectors:
Getting ahead of vector-borne diseases starts with surveillance. Health authorities must know where vectors are and how they’re behaving. By tracking the presence, distribution and activity levels of vectors like mosquitoes, ticks and sandflies, officials can make informed decisions that prevent outbreaks.
Here are some of the teams making it happen:
The ECDC is an agency of the European Union dedicated to strengthening Europe’s defenses against infectious diseases. When it comes to vector-borne disease surveillance, it:
VectorNet is a joint project between the ECDC and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). It takes vector surveillance to the next level by combining entomological expertise with data-driven tools.
Specifically, VectorNet:
This integrated surveillance system keeps Europe alert and prepared as environmental and ecological conditions shift.
With climate patterns shifting and global travel on the rise, European countries are ramping up their efforts to prevent and manage vector-borne disease outbreaks. Preparedness means building systems that anticipate and respond to threats early, both nationally and across borders.
Here’s how that work is unfolding:
European countries partner with the World Health Organization to align their vector preparedness strategies with global standards. The WHO offers technical guidance, training and risk assessment tools that support vector control programs and outbreak response. This partnership ensures Europe’s efforts are part of a global push to reduce vector-borne diseases.
Each EU member state develops its own vector preparedness plan tailored to local ecology, climate conditions and public health infrastructure. These plans typically include:
Mosquitoes certainly don’t need tiny passports to fly from one country to another, which is why cross-border preparedness is essential. Countries work closely with one another through EU-level frameworks like the Health Emergency Preparedness and Response Authority (HERA).
HERA helps by:
VBD preparedness doesn’t end with labs, legislation and logistics. It trickles down into everyday life, and that’s where public awareness comes in. Educating people about how vectors spread and what symptoms to watch for is key to prevention. When people are informed, they’re more likely to protect themselves and less likely to contribute to local disease spread.
EU member states use both classic public health outreach and digital tools to engage people where they are. Effective efforts include:
If you’re passionate about public health, vector ecology or disease prevention, the right education can help you make a difference. At the University of Florida, we don’t just study the spread of vector-borne diseases: We help stop them.
UF is home to the world’s #1 entomology and nematology program and offers two fully online credentials in medical entomology designed to fit your goals and schedule:
In just 15 credit hours, build a solid foundation in the science behind disease transmission. With courses like Ecology of Vector-Borne Diseases, Advanced Mosquito Biology and Arthropod Vector Identification, you’ll gain the skills to support vector control programs, public health initiatives and research efforts around the globe.
This 30-credit program combines a deep dive into medical entomology with a broader exploration of entomology. You’ll earn both a master’s degree and a graduate certificate upon completion, enhancing your credentials and career prospects in one powerful program.
Worried about balancing work and school? Our flexible, fully online format lets you study on your terms—no matter where you’re based. Whether you’re on the ground responding to health threats in Europe or working in a research lab halfway across the world, you’ll learn from leading experts in the field and gain credentials from a top-ranked university.
Explore your options and choose the path that fits your future.
Admit it: You’ve thought about it. Round them all up, strap them to a rocket and launch them straight into the sun. It’s a satisfying thought for anyone who’s swatted at a mosquito or tried to ignore their itchy bite. Mosquitoes are more than a backyard nuisance. They’re the deadliest creatures on Earth, spreading diseases…
Insects were first shown to transmit human disease, or “vector-borne diseases,” in 1877. After their discovery, experts used this newfound knowledge to make global efforts in preventing and controlling the transmission of vector-borne diseases. By the 1960s, vector-borne diseases were considered to be controlled in all areas outside of Africa. However, the past 50 years has seen a…
There’s nothing more annoying than the moment you wake up in bed and hear the unmistakable buzz of a mosquito near your ear — except maybe when you’re in the middle of a titillating conversation and notice a mosquito that has oh-so-stealthily landed on your leg. And no matter how many times you slap at…
If you’ve ever swatted away mosquitoes on a humid summer evening, you know the relief that winter brings when their buzzing fades. Now imagine sipping hot chocolate on a crisp holiday morning … only to find yourself swatting mosquitoes again.
Wait, what? That can’t be right. Mosquitoes are supposed to give us a break during the chilly winter months.
It might sound far-fetched, but it could become our reality. Climate change isn’t just about warmer temperatures. It’s transforming the way insects behave: altering their lifecycles, migration patterns and seasonal activity.
Climate change is causing big changes in insect behavior. Disease-carrying pests like mosquitoes and ticks are acting differently, and helpful pollinators like honey bees are changing how they gather food and reproduce. These shifts can affect public health, our food supply and the balance of entire ecosystems.
Climate change is transforming insect behavior by altering their body temperature regulation and biological processes, which are highly influenced by environmental conditions. Insects are ectothermic, meaning the environment plays a big role in determining their body temperature and biological processes.
As global temperatures rise — the Earth is now about 2.5°F hotter than it was in the pre-industrial era — and rainfall and humidity levels fluctuate, insects are responding in ways that scientists are only beginning to truly grasp.
These climate-driven shifts can lead to the following changes:
Rising temperatures aren’t just increasing insect populations — they’re also changing how disease-carrying insects behave and where they thrive. Warmer conditions speed up reproductive cycles, allowing insects like mosquitoes to bite more frequently and spread diseases faster.
These insects are also expanding into new regions as areas that were once too cold become more hospitable. This means communities that have never faced threats like dengue, Zika, or West Nile virus may now be at risk. Combined with longer active seasons due to milder winters, these shifts are significantly increasing the window of time when humans and animals can be exposed to vector-borne diseases.
Climate change threatens honey bee health by disrupting their behavior, foraging patterns and colony stability. According to The Bee Conservancy, honey bees pollinate one in every three bites of the food we eat and 80% of the world’s flowering plants. Their importance to the ecosystem and food supply can’t be overstated.
Already facing a one-in-four risk of extinction, honey bees now face an even greater threat: climate change. Here’s how rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns are altering bee behavior, and why it matters:
Honey bees rely on environmental cues like temperature to signal when it’s time to emerge from their hives. But as spring arrives earlier, bees are waking up before the plants they depend on have begun to bloom.
This disconnect, called phenological mismatch, can result in temporary food shortages for bees. Even a few days’ difference between emergence and flowering can disrupt feeding patterns, reduce energy reserves and diminish pollination success. Over time, this can impact not only bee health but also the reproductive success of many plants.
Extreme heat can damage the queen’s sperm storage, lowering fertility and egg production. Meanwhile, milder winters may prevent bees from entering full dormancy, draining their energy and making hives weaker.
Worse yet, warm winters help pests like Varroa mites survive and spread. These invasive parasites feed on both adult bees and the queen’s developing brood, transmitting viruses and weakening entire colonies.
When bee populations decline, the consequences extend far beyond the hive. Reduced pollination threatens the yield and quality of dozens of pollinator-dependent crops, from almonds to blueberries. This could lead to:
Changes in insect behavior are more than a scientific curiosity; they’re an emerging public health concern. As temperatures rise, seasons shift and insect habitats expand, we face new and more serious challenges.
Essential pollinators like bees are under increasing stress, threatening food production and biodiversity. At the same time, climate-driven shifts in vector behavior could spread more vector-borne illnesses in new regions. Together, these disruptions carry extensive implications for global health, agriculture and ecological stability.
If you’re ready to be part of the solution, the University of Florida’s online graduate programs in entomology and nematology can help you get there. Whether you’re interested in public health, pest control or beekeeping, our entirely online programs equip you with the knowledge and real-world skills to make an impact.
Choose from:
Within each of those credentials, you can focus your studies with one of four specializations:
What’s more, you’re able to study from anywhere in the world while you earn your credential.
Explore your path today and become a leader in protecting global health, food systems and ecosystems — one insect at a time.
That honey you enjoy is sweet and tasty, but do you know what’s in it? There’s plenty of sugar, of course. Also vitamins, minerals and protein in varying amounts. But some of the other genetic materials found in honey may surprise you. Here we’ll examine the field of honey metagenomics — the study of genetic…
There’s nothing more annoying than the moment you wake up in bed and hear the unmistakable buzz of a mosquito near your ear — except maybe when you’re in the middle of a titillating conversation and notice a mosquito that has oh-so-stealthily landed on your leg. And no matter how many times you slap at…
A nuclear war, if it comes, will not be won by the Americans … the Russians … the Chinese. The winner of World War III will be the cockroach. — 1965 advertisement sponsored by the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy Cockroaches have an impressive win record. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, which eliminated 80% of…
If you find yourself adding an extra layer of bug spray before your evening walks or instinctively swatting at every passing mosquito, your heightened vigilance is justified. Cases of vector-borne diseases have surged in recent years. There were over one million cases between 2001 and 2023 in the United States alone—and that number only includes reported cases.
The CDC estimates that only one in ten West Nile virus cases is reported, and the true number of Lyme disease cases could be ten times higher than those officially documented. This potential underreporting suggests an even larger and more concerning spread of vector-borne diseases within the United States, not to mention other countries around the world.
Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted to humans and other animals through insects, known as vectors, that carry pathogens. Vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas become infected when they feed on a host carrying a virus, bacteria or parasite. As they continue feeding on other animals or humans, they can transfer the pathogen, potentially causing illness in the newly infected host.
The question remains: Why are vector-borne disease rates increasing?
Several factors affect the number of recent cases.
When it comes to climate change and vector-borne diseases, rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns are reshaping ecosystems to favor disease-carrying insect populations. For instance, the record-breaking heat of 2023, which was 2.12°F above the 20th-century average, is a perfect example of how rising global temperatures can boost the populations of disease-carrying insects. Insects like mosquitoes thrive in warm environments, and climate change is enabling them to expand their habitats, possibly even into regions that were once too cold for them to survive.
In addition to temperature shifts, climate change intensifies the total rainfall in certain areas. Frequent rain creates more standing water, an essential component for mosquito breeding. With more precipitation, mosquitoes are given the ideal conditions for increasing their numbers, therefore boosting the likelihood of outbreaks in these regions.
The affordability and accessibility of modern transportation have transformed global travel. Planes, trains and automobiles have made it increasingly easy for people to explore new destinations and reconnect with distant family members. However, this ease of travel also inadvertently helps pathogens reach new regions.
Unknowing travelers can carry vector-borne diseases to places that may lack the public health infrastructure or immunity levels to effectively manage and contain outbreaks. When they arrive at their destination, a mosquito or other vector might bite them and transmit the pathogen to other humans, possibly triggering an unwanted outbreak in that region.
Air travel, specifically, offers a quick means for vectors hitchhiking in cargo and infected individuals to reach new areas. This ease of global movement makes it much easier to rapidly spread diseases like malaria and dengue.
As awareness of increasing infection rates grows, developing effective solutions to this problem becomes increasingly crucial. Below, we explore some potential strategies.
To lower temperatures and mitigate the effects of climate change, it’s essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Although this is a significant undertaking, transitioning to renewable energy sources and enforcing regulations like carbon pricing could help slow climate change. On a smaller scale, communities affected by increased precipitation could lead initiatives focused on neighborhood cleanups to reduce standing water and promote the use of insect repellent.
While some vector-borne diseases are resistant to drugs and lack vaccines, others do have available vaccines, such as the one for malaria. Providing at-risk communities with these vaccines and other resources, like insect repellents and mosquito nets, can help limit exposure and decrease infection rates.
Other public health initiatives to consider include:
As the need for effective control of vector-borne diseases grows, so does the demand for medical entomologists to study vector behavior, disease transmission and control methods. With the right training, you can transform your passion into a rewarding, life-saving career. The University of Florida’s specialization in medical entomology emphasizes vector ecology and disease dynamics, featuring courses like Advanced Mosquito Biology and Arthropod Vector Identification.
If you’re interested in managing disease-spreading vectors, we also offer specializations in Landscape Pest Management and Urban Pest Management. You can choose to earn a 15-credit graduate certificate or a 30-credit master’s degree with any of our specializations. Our master’s program combines the coursework from the graduate certificate with additional general entomology courses, giving you a well-rounded education while allowing you to focus on your chosen area of expertise.
Explore all of our program options, and reach out if you have any questions!
Sources:
https://www.cdc.gov/vector-borne-diseases/about/index.html
https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-temperature
When you hear the prefix “zoo,” it probably takes you back to childhood trips, eagerly watching some of your favorite four-legged creatures. You might not be familiar with the term zoonotic diseases, but you’ve likely guessed it has something to do with animals — and you’d be right!
Zoonotic diseases are illnesses caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites or fungi that spread between animals and humans. A well-known example is rabies, which can be transmitted to humans through animals like raccoons or bats.
But what about diseases like West Nile Virus? It begins in wild birds, but since birds aren’t flying out of the sky to bite us, how do humans get infected? This is where insect vectors come in.
Insect vectors, like mosquitoes, ticks, flies and fleas, play a crucial role in transmitting numerous zoonotic diseases to millions of people worldwide. While they don’t cause the diseases themselves, they carry and transfer the pathogens from infected animals to new hosts.
The process starts when an insect bites an infected animal, picking up the pathogen. When the insect bites another host, it transfers the pathogen, potentially infecting the new animal or human.
One common example is West Nile Virus. Without insect vectors, the virus would likely remain confined to wild bird populations. However, mosquitoes feed on a variety of animals and can spread the virus to humans, who otherwise wouldn’t be exposed.
Insects transmit pathogens through a variety of methods, including:
Different types of pathogens cause different types of diseases. Here are some categories of pathogens that insect vectors can transmit from host to host, along with some common zoonotic diseases associated with each.
A virus is the smallest and simplest of all infectious agents. Composed of genetic material encased in protein, it must enter a living being to replicate. As the virus begins to take over our cells, it starts to rapidly reproduce, often outpacing the immune system’s ability to respond. As the virus multiplies, it begins to harm the body, causing symptoms specific to the type of virus the host has contracted.
Common viruses that are often transmitted by different types of mosquitoes include:
There are healthy bacteria, like the microbiome in your gut that help with digestion. Then, there are the harmful kinds that cause conditions like food poisoning and urinary tract infections. Larger and more complex than viruses, bacteria infiltrate their hosts by multiplying quickly, damaging nearby tissue and occasionally creating toxins that block normal cell function.
Bacterial zoonotic diseases that insect vectors spread from host to host include:
While it’s challenging to eradicate vector-spread zoonotic diseases, we can work to slow their spread by implementing the following prevention strategies:
At the University of Florida, we offer four unique specializations that allow you to earn an entomology master’s degree or graduate certificate in the field of your choice:
If you’re interested in playing a larger role in slowing the spread of zoonotic diseases, a career in entomology might be right for you. Our online specialization in Medical Entomology focuses on topics like mosquito biology and advanced medical and veterinary entomology while allowing you to choose from a diverse array of electives that can be tailored to your specific interests and future ambitions.
To learn more about our entirely online graduate programs, explore our program pages or contact our Student Outreach and Engagement specialist with questions. We look forward to helping you choose the program that’s right for you!
Sources:
https://onlineentomology.ifas.ufl.edu/vector-borne-disease-preparedness-in-the-united-states/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/insect-vector
https://www.cedars-sinai.org/blog/germs-viruses-bacteria-fungi.html
https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/data-research/facts-stats/index.html#
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/plague-doctors-beaked-masks-coronavirus
Admit it: You’ve thought about it.
Round them all up, strap them to a rocket and launch them straight into the sun. It’s a satisfying thought for anyone who’s swatted at a mosquito or tried to ignore their itchy bite.
Mosquitoes are more than a backyard nuisance. They’re the deadliest creatures on Earth, spreading diseases like malaria, dengue, West Nile, yellow fever, Zika, chikungunya and lymphatic filariasis. These little bloodsuckers are responsible for over 700,000 deaths worldwide every year.
Before we set out to commit mosquito genocide, however, let’s ask: Can we really get rid of them? Mosquitoes are deadly, but they’re also a critical part of the ecosystem, right? Could wiping them out have catastrophic consequences for the environment?
Not all mosquitoes deserve our hate. Of the more than 3,500 mosquito species out there, most don’t transmit diseases to humans. In fact, some species don’t bite humans at all, and many serve as food for other animals or are unsung heroes of pollination.
If we can’t kill all mosquitoes, what about the species that pose a serious threat to humans? Take Aedes aegypti, the so-called “cockroach of mosquitoes.” These insects are vectors for diseases like dengue, Zika, yellow fever and chikungunya. Plus, they’re an invasive species in many parts of the world, so their removal would also benefit the environment. It’s a win-win. So what’s stopping us from getting rid of Aedes aegypti and making the world a safer place?
The problem is that we’ve already tried.
Ever feel like you’re the only one in your group being eaten alive by mosquitoes? If you think mosquitoes have it out for you, you might be right.
It’s nothing personal. Mosquitoes are after blood for a reason: Females need the protein in blood to make eggs. And like any expectant mother, they’re picky about what they eat, using their antennae and palps (sensory appendages that flank the proboscis) to detect carbon dioxide and odors in the air and locate prey. So, if you’re exhaling more carbon dioxide than everyone around you, which is likely if you have a high metabolic rate, you’re more likely to receive mosquito bites.
After a yellow fever outbreak hit Rio de Janeiro in June 1928, Dr. Fred Soper dedicated himself to the herculean task of ridding the world of yellow fever. Soper decided to go after the root cause of the disease’s spread: Aedes aegypti. He had been considering the idea for some time, writing the following a year before the outbreak:
Is it possible to exterminate Aedes aegypti in limited control areas? Has extermination ever been attempted? … This may seem a bit wild, but it does not seem to me to be any more of a departure from the reasonable than was the first attempt to control yellow fever by antilarval measures alone. It seems to me to be worth investigation.
As director of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Soper persuaded all member countries to join him in a (deliriously) ambitious mission: to eradicate Aedes aegypti from the Americas. And it worked—at least, for a while. Brazil was declared Aedes aegypti-free in 1958, and by 1964, most Central and South American countries followed suit. Unfortunately, the mosquito is nothing if not resilient.
As soon as Aedes aegypti were eradicated from one area, they moved to another. Total eradication was always out of reach. By 1976, Brazil was reinfested, and by 1985, PAHO was forced to admit defeat, acknowledging that the goal of wiping out Aedes aegypti across the Americas was unrealistic.
Soper’s crusade against the mosquito failed for many reasons. Countries struggled with reinfestation, the insecticide DDT was overused and the United States was reluctant to assist. The real issue, however, was that the eradication program promised to solve an impossible problem.
Since then, we’ve gotten smarter about how we tackle mosquitoes. Control strategies are far more specialized, factoring in the complex ways insects, diseases and humans interact. Scientists are even experimenting with gene editing and Wolbachia, a bacterial infection that can sterilize male mosquitoes, to keep populations in check. There are also non-chemical options, such as using fish to eat larvae or drones to identify stagnant water for removal.
Still, the war against these deadly insects rages on. With short generations, mosquitoes are notoriously difficult to deal with, capable of mutating and adapting to almost anything we throw at them. Plus, there’s still a lot we don’t know about these tiny but deadly insects.
Mosquitoes aren’t just annoying. They’re dangerous, especially in places with limited resources where disease can spread easily. A lot of work needs to be done for humans to live alongside insects like the mosquito safely (and preferably without itchy bites).
Interested in joining the fight? The University of Florida offers online medical entomology programs where you can learn all about preventing the spread of vector borne diseases. Check them out:
Both programs explore integrated pest management in the public health sector, focusing on strategies that can take down insect vectors. Online classes like Ecology of Vector-Borne Diseases and Advanced Mosquito Biology provide the deep knowledge needed to make an impact in this essential field.
Ready to step up? Explore our other certificates and master’s degree specializations, and if you’re serious about dedicating your life to fighting mosquito-borne diseases, apply today to UF.
Sources:
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/50200/9781000435085.pdf;sequence=1#page=96
https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/12/us/mosquito-control-elimination-us-scn-wellness/index.html
https://www.pfizer.com/news/articles/why_are_some_people_tastier_to_mosquitoes_than_others
There’s been a murder! The victim lies lifeless, and without a witness, murder weapon or DNA evidence, this case may be impossible to crack. But fear not, investigators have an unexpected ally: forensic entomologists.
Today, we’re diving into the fascinating world of forensic entomology: the study of the application of insects and other arthropods found at crime scenes that help investigators solve mysteries. While their methods may seem farfetched, these specialists are invaluable in criminal investigations.
Fair Warning: This subject is captivating but not for the squeamish!
When someone dies, their body begins to decompose in a process called autolysis. Soft tissues break down, releasing volatile molecules called apeneumones. The release of apeneumones like carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia acts like a dinner bell to insects, attracting them and altering their behavior.
This predictable process, wherein insects arrive and lay eggs, allows forensic entomologists to glean all sorts of information from a corpse, including:
Time of death, for example, can be estimated by observing blow flies. These insects are remarkable for their keen sense of smell, allowing them to locate a body in as little as ten minutes.
Blow flies arrive on the scene and lay eggs on the body. The eggs hatch into maggots, which feed, grow and molt through several stages until they pupate. During pupation, they form a hardened shell and metamorphose into adult flies.
By identifying the species of fly and determining their life stage, forensic entomologists can estimate the time of death. This isn’t an exact science, however. Factors like temperature, location and the condition of the body can influence the development of these insects. This complexity is why forensic entomology is such a vital and specialized field.
The first recorded use of insects to solve a crime dates back to 13th-century China. After a farmer was found murdered, the suspects were asked to place their sickles on the ground. Remarkably, blow flies swarmed one particular sickle, which had been cleaned but still bore invisible traces of blood. Faced with this damning evidence, the sickle’s owner confessed to the murder. (Can you imagine being that guy? So close to getting away with murder, only to be undone by an entirely new field of science.) This ingenious use of insect behavior marked the birth of forensic entomology.
Modern Forensic Entomology
Fast forward to 19th-century France, when the field took another significant step forward. A doctor examined the remains of a child found in an apartment building, discovering fly larvae and moth pupae. He understood their life cycles and concluded that the child had died eight to ten months prior. This crucial information led investigators to rule out the apartment’s current occupants and focus on the murderers, a couple who had lived there months earlier.
Today, police departments have forensic laboratories and investigators at their disposal, yet forensic entomology remains a rare specialty. In the United States, fewer than 20 people are accredited by the American Board of Forensic Entomology.
Forensic entomology is a unique blend of insect study and crime-solving. It’s incredible how tiny bugs can unravel big mysteries, like establishing time of death or identifying where a crime took place. If you’re intrigued by this field and want to learn more, consider the University of Florida’s online entomology programs.
UF offers online master’s degrees and graduate certificates with specializations in medical entomology, landscape pest management, urban pest management and beekeeping. But we’re going to focus on our medical entomology options.
Our online medical entomology programs provide a solid foundation in entomology, insect classification and ecological concepts. These programs are ideal for future ecologists, biologists and, of course, forensic entomologists. While you’ll eventually need a Ph.D. in entomology to become a forensic entomologist, our online programs offer a great starting point.
To get a better idea of what our programs offer, check out Graduate Survey of Entomology. This course serves as an introduction to insect anatomy and physiology. By the end of the course, students should be able to identify common insects and explain their movements, digestion and appearance.
Whether you’re looking to advance your career or just love learning about insects, our flexible online courses are a perfect fit. Check out UF’s online entomology programs and see where your passion can take you!
Sources:
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/murder-maggots-forensic-entomology.html
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/scientist-using-bugs-help-solve-murders-180983463/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3296382/
What if your recent mosquito bite carried more than just the discomfort of being an itchy nuisance? What if it posed a significant risk of transmitting a deadly disease like malaria, yellow fever or Zika virus?
According to the World Health Organization, vector-borne diseases are responsible for causing over 700,000 deaths annually. Malaria alone caused approximately 249,000 cases worldwide in 2022, with 233,000 of those cases occurring in Africa.
The number of active mosquito-borne diseases in the United States is significantly lower, partly due to the country’s topography. Another major contributing factor is the robust American public health infrastructure and the implementation of vector control measures recommended by medical entomologists.
Today, we’re exploring the importance of medical entomologists working alongside public health officials to prepare for and prevent the spread of vector-borne diseases in the U.S.
A vector-borne disease is an infectious disease that is spread by vectors. But what are vectors in the context of entomology?
Vectors are living organisms, like mosquitoes or ticks, that transmit infections from one human or animal to another. It’s important to note, however, that with over 3,500 species of species of mosquitoes on the planet, not every mosquito in the world is disease-carrying. An insect becomes a vector only after ingesting a pathogen while feeding on its host.
For example, a disease-free mosquito might feed off of a human that’s carrying the malaria parasite. Once the mosquito ingests the parasite, it multiplies inside the mosquito. Then, when the vector feeds on another human, it unknowingly transmits that pathogen through its saliva.
Medical entomologists specialize in the study of insects on a microscopic level. Their particular focus revolves around how insects impact human health, especially when those insects happen to be vectors for diseases.
Medical entomologists have several indispensable responsibilities that help to control and prevent the spread of vector-borne diseases, including:
Without the help of public health officials, medical entomologists wouldn’t be able to implement their extensively researched vector control measures. However, by working alongside public health sector officials, they can elaborate on their findings and collaborate on strategies that aim to reduce the risk of disease transmission in different regions. These collaborative efforts include:
What are vector-borne diseases?
A vector-borne disease is an infectious disease that is spread by vectors.
What are vectors?
Vectors are living organisms, like mosquitoes or ticks, that transmit infections from one human or animal to another.
What is a medical entomologist?
Medical entomologists specialize in the study of insects on a microscopic level. Their particular focus revolves around how insects impact human health, especially when those insects happen to be vectors for diseases.
How can the U.S. integrate medical entomology into public health strategies?
Medical entomologists, working alongside public health sector officials, can elaborate on findings and collaborate on strategies that aim to reduce the risk of disease transmission in different regions.
With an increase in vector-borne illnesses like malaria in recent years, there’s higher demand for medical entomologists. The University of Florida proudly offers two online programs crafted to provide the unique skillset needed to start your career in medical entomology, including:
Graduate Certificate in Medical Entomology
This 15-credit online program focuses on courses rooted in advanced medical and veterinary entomology, as well as mosquito biology. You can use the remaining two credits to choose an elective that aligns with your future career path, from tropical entomology to exotic species — and more!
Master’s Degree in Entomology and Nematology
We also provide an online 30-credit medical entomology master’s degree option, offering a more comprehensive understanding of entomology. In addition to core courses in entomology, you’ll also complete the curriculum from our online Graduate Certificate in Medical Entomology. Upon graduation, you’ll earn two prestigious graduate credentials:
Whether you want to become a biologist, a medical entomologist or pursue a different career in entomology, our programs can enhance your skillset for a variety of new roles in the industry. Browse our program offerings and apply today!
Sources:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/790174/estimated-share-of-total-malaria-cases-by-country/
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585164/
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases worldwide, and Europe is not immune to their growing threat. Changes in climate, travel and urban life are creating more favorable conditions for disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes, ticks and sandflies to thrive and spread. Across Europe, vector-borne illnesses such as Lyme disease, West…
If you’ve ever swatted away mosquitoes on a humid summer evening, you know the relief that winter brings when their buzzing fades. Now imagine sipping hot chocolate on a crisp holiday morning … only to find yourself swatting mosquitoes again. Wait, what? That can’t be right. Mosquitoes are supposed to give us a break during…
If you find yourself adding an extra layer of bug spray before your evening walks or instinctively swatting at every passing mosquito, your heightened vigilance is justified. Cases of vector-borne diseases have surged in recent years. There were over one million cases between 2001 and 2023 in the United States alone—and that number only includes…
If you’ve ever lived or vacationed in a mosquito-friendly environment, you’re probably all too familiar with the itchy frustration that comes with always being on the lookout for those pesky insects. With the unexpected reappearance of malaria in the United States, the need to spray ourselves with mosquito repellant and continually pour out any stagnant water in our backyards has become even more of a necessity.
There were just nine reported cases of malaria in the U.S. in 2023. But should we be concerned about a possible resurgence? Today, we’re delving into the reemergence of malaria to discern whether a widespread return of this ancient disease is possible.
Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. It’s not transmitted directly from person to person but rather through infected mosquitoes that transmit the parasite to the host when they bite. The disease can cause several severe symptoms, including:
According to the World Health Organization, there were approximately 249 million cases of malaria globally in 2022, with around 608,000 resulting in death. The disease is most prevalent in warmer climates, particularly in parts of Africa south of the Sahara, where transmission rates are highest. Within that area, children under five years old account for approximately 80% of deaths related to malaria.
Cases of malaria within the United States persisted until the 1950s, when it was finally eradicated from the country. Before that, however, it was believed that a malaria-causing parasite was brought to North America by people from Africa who had been enslaved and brought by force, as well as by travelers from nations such as Spain and Portugal.
Upon their arrival in North America, Anopheles mosquitoes were already present, ready to greet the newcomers by feeding on their infected blood. From there, mosquitoes carrying the disease would transmit the malaria-causing parasite to new hosts as they continued to feed.
It wasn’t until hundreds of years later, when scientists better understood how malaria was transmitted, that they could begin the difficult work of reducing the spread of the disease. Prevention efforts began during World War I and consisted of:
The United States remained free of locally acquired malaria for 20 years. In August of 2023, however, the U.S. reported nine new cases: one in Texas, one in Maryland and seven in Florida.
While the U.S. typically sees approximately 2,000 cases of imported malaria (where individuals become infected in other countries and bring the infection back) annually, these nine new cases were reported to be locally acquired. This indicates that individuals contracted the disease from mosquitoes local to the area that were already infected by the parasite.
Fortunately, no additional cases were noted in the following weeks, and there is no serious concern from the perspective of the medical entomology community. Here’s why experts aren’t ready to sound the alarm just yet:
While a new malaria endemic isn’t a current cause of panic in the States, that doesn’t make it any less of a concern in many other areas around the world — and malaria isn’t the only disease that mosquitoes carry and transmit to innocent, unsuspecting hosts. If helping to eradicate this and other arthropod-borne diseases ignites a flame that can’t be put out, consider steering your path toward a career in entomology by earning a graduate credential in medical entomology.
UF offers two entirely online medical entomology programs tailored to suit your interests and future career, including:
This 30-credit program combines the courses from our graduate certificate in medical entomology with a broad selection of courses that provide foundational knowledge of entomology, insect classification and ecological concepts. When you complete this program, you’ll have earned not one, but two career-advancing credentials you can add to your resume:
Our online graduate certificate comprises 15 credits of engaging courses that dive into advanced medical and veterinary entomology and mosquito biology. You can complete your certificate in as little as one year but have up to seven years to finish your coursework, giving you the ultimate flexibility to earn your certificate on your timeline.
We’re proud to be the world’s number-one ranked entomology and nematology program, and we’re thrilled to have you join us as you prepare to advance your career in entomology.
Sources:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/index.html
https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2023/malarias-comeback-in-the-us
https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/disease.html
There’s nothing more annoying than the moment you wake up in bed and hear the unmistakable buzz of a mosquito near your ear — except maybe when you’re in the middle of a titillating conversation and notice a mosquito that has oh-so-stealthily landed on your leg. And no matter how many times you slap at it, it escapes your wrath.
Mosquitoes are more than annoying pests, however. Causing over one million deaths globally each year, they’re silent and lethal assassins. It’s challenging to wrap your mind around how an insect so small can cause such devastation around the world. Join us as we discuss three deadly diseases mosquitoes carry and review what you can do to protect yourself from mosquito bites in the future.
Think of mosquitoes as little vampires — except, unlike their blood-sucking cousins, they roam for prey during the day and usually disappear by dusk. But why is blood so important to their diet? And what do mosquitoes eat besides blood?
Only female mosquitoes dine on your blood, and they do so because they require the nutrients in your blood to produce their eggs. Once they’ve homed in on a victim, they strike with the help of their needle-like mouthpart, called a proboscis, which pierces the skin and sucks out the blood. They use their saliva to lubricate the opening of the wound, which is what often creates the stinging or itching sensation you feel during or after a bite. Males, on the other hand, prefer vegetarian meals and only opt for flower nectar for sustenance.
As female mosquitoes move from host to blood-filled host, they sometimes pick up disease-causing microorganisms from infected victims. Once ingested, they can then transmit those pathogens to other innocent people or animals. Some of the most common and deadly diseases they spread include:
West Nile Virus (WNV) is transmitted to humans through mosquitoes that have bitten an infected bird with the disease. Approximately 80% of people who get WNV experience no symptoms, and those who do usually notice symptoms such as fever, headache, stiffness in the neck, tremors and muscle weakness. This disease is most dangerous to those who are immunocompromised, have certain medical conditions or are 60 and older.
Malaria is spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes (one of more than 3,000 species). Symptoms usually begin about 10 to 15 days after a mosquito has bitten a victim and include fever, headache and chills. While malaria is treatable, some of the parasites that cause the disease have adapted against anti-malarial medications, which has left some strains of the disease completely drug resistant.
The Zika virus is often passed through the bite of Aedes mosquitoes. Once a person is infected, there’s a large chance they’ll be asymptomatic. Those with symptoms often experience muscle and joint pain, fever, rash and conjunctivitis (pink eye). Surprisingly, mosquitoes aren’t the only culprits of spreading Zika. Infected humans can also spread the disease through sexual contact as the virus can survive in sexual organs, often with the transmitter not experiencing any symptoms.
In addition, pregnant mothers with Zika can also transmit the disease to their unborn babies. An Zika infection during pregnancy can cause the baby to be born with microcephaly, a birth defect that causes the baby’s head to be smaller than normal. The disease also can lead to other severe birth defects.
While mosquito bites are usually no more than an annoying nuisance to unwilling victims for a day or so, you never know when a disease-infected mosquito might buzz its way to your skin looking for a taste of your blood. Thankfully, there are precautions you can take to prevent mosquito bites. And while there’s no guarantee that one or two won’t slip past your defenses, it’s better to play it safe than sorry with the following tips:
With the University of Florida’s online Master’s Degree in Entomology with a Specialization in Medical Entomology or Graduate Certificate in Medical Entomology, you’ll learn everything you need to start the next chapter in your entomology career, whether you’re pursuing a role as a mosquito control technician, vector control specialist or another critical role in public health. Our programs features entirely online courses, where you’ll learn how to identify biting arthropods, discuss the biology of mosquitoes and arthropod-borne diseases and develop management options for mosquitoes and their diseases.
Students are accepted year-round, and there’s no GRE requirement. You can complete your online coursework at a pace you’re comfortable with. Learn more about UF’s online entomology graduate certificate programs today.
Sources:
https://www.mosquito.org/page/diseases
https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/zoology/item/why-do-mosquitoes-bite-me-and-not-my-friend/
https://www.pfizer.com/news/articles/6_mosquito_diseases_that_can_be_deadly
https://www.ecolab.com/pages/common-types-of-mosquitoes
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/avoid-bug-bites
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/czs/index.html
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases worldwide, and Europe is not immune to their growing threat. Changes in climate, travel and urban life are creating more favorable conditions for disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes, ticks and sandflies to thrive and spread. Across Europe, vector-borne illnesses such as Lyme disease, West…
If you’ve ever swatted away mosquitoes on a humid summer evening, you know the relief that winter brings when their buzzing fades. Now imagine sipping hot chocolate on a crisp holiday morning … only to find yourself swatting mosquitoes again. Wait, what? That can’t be right. Mosquitoes are supposed to give us a break during…
If you find yourself adding an extra layer of bug spray before your evening walks or instinctively swatting at every passing mosquito, your heightened vigilance is justified. Cases of vector-borne diseases have surged in recent years. There were over one million cases between 2001 and 2023 in the United States alone—and that number only includes…
Public health initiatives include efforts to warn people of the dangers of smoking, heart disease and obesity. In many cases, simply informing the public of a problem is enough to mitigate it. However, not all problems can be solved with a persuasive pamphlet. Transmitted by insects, some of the world’s most infectious diseases can spread rapidly from one person to another. It’s only when cases start trickling in that the first signs of an outbreak emerge. Who do local, state and federal governments rely on when playing a game of catch-up against a vector-borne disease infecting hundreds, if not thousands, of people?
Medical entomologists may not be medical doctors, but their work in public health can nonetheless save lives. As we look at the overlap between entomology and public health, consider that the world is in desperate need of pest management professionals able to survey and prevent vector-borne diseases. Without expertly trained, passionately curious entomologists, the public health field would be unequipped to handle some of the greatest threats to our nation’s health.
Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, a key figure in the development of modern public health, defined public health as “the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private communities, and individuals.” Considering that 17% of all infectious diseases are caused by insects and other arthropods, it’s no wonder entomologists are called upon to uphold these defining aspects of public health.
Medical entomologists, also known as public health entomologists, are dedicated to ensuring that our nation is no longer threatened by vector-borne diseases. As part of a national public health framework for vector-borne disease prevention and control, medical entomologists have prioritized the following goals:
Preventing and controlling vector-borne diseases like West Nile virus isn’t the job of a single medical entomologist — or even a single government agency, for that matter. Surveying threats and preventing outbreaks takes a coordinated effort on the part of a multidisciplinary set of stakeholders, including governments, health departments, vector control agencies, healthcare providers, academic partners, nonprofit organizations, and entomological professionals. Every part of this network plays a specific and crucial role in tackling the complex problems that mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and other blood-feeding insects present, especially since the number of disease cases from these insects has tripled since the early 2000s.
Vector-borne threats are unique among public health threats; however, public health professionals employ the same approach when addressing vector-borne threats as they do other public health concerns. The public health approach entails recognizing and responding to a problem and is comprised of four steps. Let’s see how the public health approach was used to predict and mitigate an outbreak of West Nile virus, the leading cause of mosquito-borne disease in the continental United States and Canada.
In August 2017, when researchers noticed signs of an impending West Nile virus epidemic in Ontario, Canada, the problem was only identified because mosquito surveillance programs were already in place. By studying climate data, past human cases, and trapped West Nile-positive mosquitoes, researchers were able to predict that hundreds of people were at risk of contracting this disease, which results in meningitis, encephalitis and acute flaccid paralysis, in rare cases.
With the problem known, the next step was to identify its cause as well as those who are most at risk. Out of the 67 species of mosquitoes in Ontario, Culex mosquitoes are most likely to spread West Nile virus. These mosquitoes thrive in urban environments where standing water is widespread, so researchers knew exactly where groups of Culex mosquitoes were most likely to be and who they were most likely to target. Moreover, Culex mosquitoes feed primarily on birds, including crows, magpies and ravens. With these birds flying south for the winter, mosquitoes switching to humans for a bite to eat, and warm and humid weather contributing to mosquito and virus development, researchers had their cause.
When solving a problem, public health professionals often look to what’s worked in the past. By staying indoors, applying bug repellent, wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants and clearing standing water, Ontario residents could lower their risk of being bitten by a West-Nile-virus-positive mosquito. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to get people to care about mosquito-borne illnesses late in the summer when mosquitoes are less of a problem. Nevertheless, researchers knew they had to persuade the public to protect themselves against the dangers of West Nile virus.
Many public health problems can only be solved by large-scale initiatives, such as the widespread use of aerial insecticides here in the U.S. In this case, however, all researchers had to do was publish their findings. Local news picked up on “one of the largest West Nile virus outbreaks in fifteen years,” and the public was adequately notified of the impending epidemic. Ultimately, reported cases of West Nile virus ended up being half that of predicted cases, thanks in part to the surveillance efforts of medical entomologists.
Entomologists are essential for ensuring the health of the public. You may not find them in an operating room, and they may study insect biology instead of human anatomy, but medical entomologists are as dedicated to preventing disease and saving lives as anyone in public health. Without their expertise, our nation would be ill-equipped to combat diseases like West Nile virus, dengue, Zika, Lyme and plague — diseases that affect tens of thousands of Americans every year.
The University of Florida offers an online entomology and nematology master’s degree and graduate certificate, each with three specialization options, one of which is medical entomology. Courses like Principles of Urban Pest Management, Ecology of Vector-Borne Diseases and Advanced Medical and Veterinary Entomology can prepare you for a fulfilling career researching, preventing and controlling vector-borne diseases. Become a medical entomologist and turn your love of insects into a lifesaving career in public health.
Sources:
https://www.cdc.gov/publichealth101/documents/introduction-to-public-health.pdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5568768/
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ontario-west-nile-virus-rain-heat-2017-1.4248257
https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/70/4/281/5739314
